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Taking a responsible path to AGI

We’re exploring the frontiers of AGI, prioritizing readiness, proactive risk assessment, and collaboration with the wider AI community.IntroductionArtificial general intelligence (AGI), AI that’s at least as capable as humans at most cognitive tasks, could be here within the coming years.Integrated with agentic capabilities, AGI could supercharge AI to understand, reason, plan, and execute actions autonomously. Such technological advancement will provide society with invaluable tools to address critical global challenges, including drug discovery, economic growth and climate change.This means we can expect tangible benefits for billions of people. For instance, by enabling faster, more accurate medical diagnoses, it could revolutionize healthcare. By offering personalized learning experiences, it could make education more accessible and engaging. By enhancing information processing, AGI could help lower barriers to innovation and creativity. By democratising access to advanced tools and knowledge, it could enable a small organization to tackle complex challenges previously only addressable by large, well-funded institutions.Navigating the path to AGIWe’re optimistic about AGI’s potential. It has the power to transform our world, acting as a catalyst for progress in many areas of life. But it is essential with any technology this powerful, that even a small possibility of harm must be taken seriously and prevented.Mitigating AGI safety challenges demands proactive planning, preparation and collaboration. Previously, we introduced our approach to AGI in the “Levels of AGI” framework paper, which provides a perspective on classifying the capabilities of advanced AI systems, understanding and comparing their performance, assessing potential risks, and gauging progress towards more general and capable AI.Today, we’re sharing our views on AGI safety and security as we navigate the path toward this transformational technology. This new paper, titled, An Approach to Technical AGI Safety & Security, is a starting point for vital conversations with the wider industry about how we monitor AGI progress, and ensure it’s developed safely and responsibly.In the paper, we detail how we’re taking a systematic and comprehensive approach to AGI safety, exploring four main risk areas: misuse, misalignment, accidents, and structural risks, with a deeper focus on misuse and misalignment. Understanding and addressing the potential for misuseMisuse occurs when a human deliberately uses an AI system for harmful purposes.Improved insight into present-day harms and mitigations continues to enhance our understanding of longer-term severe harms and how to prevent them.For instance, misuse of present-day generative AI includes producing harmful content or spreading inaccurate information. In the future, advanced AI systems may have the capacity to more significantly influence public beliefs and behaviors in ways that could lead to unintended societal consequences.The potential severity of such harm necessitates proactive safety and security measures.As we detail in the paper, a key element of our strategy is identifying and restricting access to dangerous capabilities that could be misused, including those enabling cyber attacks.We’re exploring a number of mitigations to prevent the misuse of advanced AI. This includes sophisticated security mechanisms which could prevent malicious actors from obtaining raw access to model weights that allow them to bypass our safety guardrails; mitigations that limit the potential for misuse when the model is deployed; and threat modelling research that helps identify capability thresholds where heightened security is necessary. Additionally, our recently launched cybersecurity evaluation framework takes this work step a further to help mitigate against AI-powered threats.Even today, we evaluate our most advanced models, such as Gemini, for potential dangerous capabilities prior to their release. Our Frontier Safety Framework delves deeper into how we assess capabilities and employ mitigations, including for cybersecurity and biosecurity risks.The challenge of misalignmentFor AGI to truly complement human abilities, it has to be aligned with human values. Misalignment occurs when the AI system pursues a goal that is different from human intentions.We have previously shown how misalignment can arise with our examples of specification gaming, where an AI finds a solution to achieve its goals, but not in the way intended by the human instructing it, and goal misgeneralization.For example, an AI system asked to book tickets to a movie might decide to hack into the ticketing system to get already occupied seats – something that a person asking it to buy the seats may not consider.We’re also conducting extensive research on the risk of deceptive alignment, i.e. the risk of an AI system becoming aware that its goals do not align with human instructions, and deliberately trying to bypass the safety measures put in place by humans to prevent it from taking misaligned action.Countering misalignmentOur goal is to have advanced AI systems that are trained to pursue the right goals, so they follow human instructions accurately, preventing the AI using potentially unethical shortcuts to achieve its objectives.We do this through amplified oversight, i.e. being able to tell whether an AI’s answers are good or bad at achieving that objective. While this is relatively easy now, it can become challenging when the AI has advanced capabilities.As an example, even Go experts didn’t realize how good Move 37, a move that had a 1 in 10,000 chance of being used, was when AlphaGo first played it.To address this challenge, we enlist the AI systems themselves to help us provide feedback on their answers, such as in debate.Once we can tell whether an answer is good, we can use this to build a safe and aligned AI system. A challenge here is to figure out what problems or instances to train the AI system on. Through work on robust training, uncertainty estimation and more, we can cover a range of situations that an AI system will encounter in real-world scenarios, creating AI that can be trusted.Through effective monitoring and established computer security measures, we’re aiming to mitigate harm that may occur if our AI systems did pursue misaligned goals.Monitoring involves using an AI system, called the monitor, to detect actions that don’t align with our goals. It is important that the monitor knows when it doesn’t know whether an action is safe. When it is unsure, it should either reject the action or flag the action for further review.Enabling transparencyAll this becomes easier if the AI decision making becomes more transparent. We do extensive research in interpretability with the aim to increase this transparency.To facilitate this further, we’re designing AI systems that are easier to understand.For example, our research on Myopic Optimization with Nonmyopic Approval (MONA) aims to ensure that any long-term planning done by AI systems remains understandable to humans. This is particularly important as the technology improves. Our work on MONA is the first to demonstrate the safety benefits of short-term optimization in LLMs.Building an ecosystem for AGI readinessLed by Shane Legg, Co-Founder and Chief AGI Scientist at Google DeepMind, our AGI Safety Council (ASC) analyzes AGI risk and best practices, making recommendations on safety measures. The ASC works closely with the Responsibility and Safety Council, our internal review group co-chaired by our COO Lila Ibrahim and Senior Director of Responsibility Helen King, to evaluate AGI research, projects and collaborations against our AI Principles, advising and partnering with research and product teams on our highest impact work.Our work on AGI safety complements our depth and breadth of responsibility and safety practices and research addressing a wide range of issues, including harmful content, bias, and transparency. We also continue to leverage our learnings from safety in agentics, such as the principle of having a human in the loop to check in for consequential actions, to inform our approach to building AGI responsibly.Externally, we’re working to foster collaboration with experts, industry, governments, nonprofits and civil society organizations, and take an informed approach to developing AGI.For example, we’re partnering with nonprofit AI safety research organizations, including Apollo and Redwood Research, who have advised on a dedicated misalignment section in the latest version of our Frontier Safety Framework.Through ongoing dialogue with policy stakeholders globally, we hope to contribute to international consensus on critical frontier safety and security issues, including how we can best anticipate and prepare for novel risks.Our efforts include working with others in the industry – via organizations like the Frontier Model Forum – to share and develop best practices, as well as valuable collaborations with AI Institutes on safety testing. Ultimately, we believe a coordinated international approach to governance is critical to ensure society benefits from advanced AI systems.Educating AI researchers and experts on AGI safety is fundamental to creating a strong foundation for its development. As such, we’ve launched a new course on AGI Safety for students, researchers and professionals interested in this topic.Ultimately, our approach to AGI safety and security serves as a vital roadmap to address the many challenges that remain open. We look forward to collaborating with the wider AI research community to advance AGI responsibly and help us unlock the immense benefits of this technology for all.

We’re exploring the frontiers of AGI, prioritizing readiness, proactive risk assessment, and collaboration with the wider AI community.

Introduction

Artificial general intelligence (AGI), AI that’s at least as capable as humans at most cognitive tasks, could be here within the coming years.

Integrated with agentic capabilities, AGI could supercharge AI to understand, reason, plan, and execute actions autonomously. Such technological advancement will provide society with invaluable tools to address critical global challenges, including drug discovery, economic growth and climate change.

This means we can expect tangible benefits for billions of people. For instance, by enabling faster, more accurate medical diagnoses, it could revolutionize healthcare. By offering personalized learning experiences, it could make education more accessible and engaging. By enhancing information processing, AGI could help lower barriers to innovation and creativity. By democratising access to advanced tools and knowledge, it could enable a small organization to tackle complex challenges previously only addressable by large, well-funded institutions.

Navigating the path to AGI

We’re optimistic about AGI’s potential. It has the power to transform our world, acting as a catalyst for progress in many areas of life. But it is essential with any technology this powerful, that even a small possibility of harm must be taken seriously and prevented.

Mitigating AGI safety challenges demands proactive planning, preparation and collaboration. Previously, we introduced our approach to AGI in the “Levels of AGI” framework paper, which provides a perspective on classifying the capabilities of advanced AI systems, understanding and comparing their performance, assessing potential risks, and gauging progress towards more general and capable AI.

Today, we’re sharing our views on AGI safety and security as we navigate the path toward this transformational technology. This new paper, titled, An Approach to Technical AGI Safety & Security, is a starting point for vital conversations with the wider industry about how we monitor AGI progress, and ensure it’s developed safely and responsibly.

In the paper, we detail how we’re taking a systematic and comprehensive approach to AGI safety, exploring four main risk areas: misuse, misalignment, accidents, and structural risks, with a deeper focus on misuse and misalignment.

Understanding and addressing the potential for misuse

Misuse occurs when a human deliberately uses an AI system for harmful purposes.

Improved insight into present-day harms and mitigations continues to enhance our understanding of longer-term severe harms and how to prevent them.

For instance, misuse of present-day generative AI includes producing harmful content or spreading inaccurate information. In the future, advanced AI systems may have the capacity to more significantly influence public beliefs and behaviors in ways that could lead to unintended societal consequences.

The potential severity of such harm necessitates proactive safety and security measures.

As we detail in the paper, a key element of our strategy is identifying and restricting access to dangerous capabilities that could be misused, including those enabling cyber attacks.

We’re exploring a number of mitigations to prevent the misuse of advanced AI. This includes sophisticated security mechanisms which could prevent malicious actors from obtaining raw access to model weights that allow them to bypass our safety guardrails; mitigations that limit the potential for misuse when the model is deployed; and threat modelling research that helps identify capability thresholds where heightened security is necessary. Additionally, our recently launched cybersecurity evaluation framework takes this work step a further to help mitigate against AI-powered threats.

Even today, we evaluate our most advanced models, such as Gemini, for potential dangerous capabilities prior to their release. Our Frontier Safety Framework delves deeper into how we assess capabilities and employ mitigations, including for cybersecurity and biosecurity risks.

The challenge of misalignment

For AGI to truly complement human abilities, it has to be aligned with human values. Misalignment occurs when the AI system pursues a goal that is different from human intentions.

We have previously shown how misalignment can arise with our examples of specification gaming, where an AI finds a solution to achieve its goals, but not in the way intended by the human instructing it, and goal misgeneralization.

For example, an AI system asked to book tickets to a movie might decide to hack into the ticketing system to get already occupied seats – something that a person asking it to buy the seats may not consider.

We’re also conducting extensive research on the risk of deceptive alignment, i.e. the risk of an AI system becoming aware that its goals do not align with human instructions, and deliberately trying to bypass the safety measures put in place by humans to prevent it from taking misaligned action.

Countering misalignment

Our goal is to have advanced AI systems that are trained to pursue the right goals, so they follow human instructions accurately, preventing the AI using potentially unethical shortcuts to achieve its objectives.

We do this through amplified oversight, i.e. being able to tell whether an AI’s answers are good or bad at achieving that objective. While this is relatively easy now, it can become challenging when the AI has advanced capabilities.

As an example, even Go experts didn’t realize how good Move 37, a move that had a 1 in 10,000 chance of being used, was when AlphaGo first played it.

To address this challenge, we enlist the AI systems themselves to help us provide feedback on their answers, such as in debate.

Once we can tell whether an answer is good, we can use this to build a safe and aligned AI system. A challenge here is to figure out what problems or instances to train the AI system on. Through work on robust training, uncertainty estimation and more, we can cover a range of situations that an AI system will encounter in real-world scenarios, creating AI that can be trusted.

Through effective monitoring and established computer security measures, we’re aiming to mitigate harm that may occur if our AI systems did pursue misaligned goals.

Monitoring involves using an AI system, called the monitor, to detect actions that don’t align with our goals. It is important that the monitor knows when it doesn’t know whether an action is safe. When it is unsure, it should either reject the action or flag the action for further review.

Enabling transparency

All this becomes easier if the AI decision making becomes more transparent. We do extensive research in interpretability with the aim to increase this transparency.

To facilitate this further, we’re designing AI systems that are easier to understand.

For example, our research on Myopic Optimization with Nonmyopic Approval (MONA) aims to ensure that any long-term planning done by AI systems remains understandable to humans. This is particularly important as the technology improves. Our work on MONA is the first to demonstrate the safety benefits of short-term optimization in LLMs.

Building an ecosystem for AGI readiness

Led by Shane Legg, Co-Founder and Chief AGI Scientist at Google DeepMind, our AGI Safety Council (ASC) analyzes AGI risk and best practices, making recommendations on safety measures. The ASC works closely with the Responsibility and Safety Council, our internal review group co-chaired by our COO Lila Ibrahim and Senior Director of Responsibility Helen King, to evaluate AGI research, projects and collaborations against our AI Principles, advising and partnering with research and product teams on our highest impact work.

Our work on AGI safety complements our depth and breadth of responsibility and safety practices and research addressing a wide range of issues, including harmful content, bias, and transparency. We also continue to leverage our learnings from safety in agentics, such as the principle of having a human in the loop to check in for consequential actions, to inform our approach to building AGI responsibly.

Externally, we’re working to foster collaboration with experts, industry, governments, nonprofits and civil society organizations, and take an informed approach to developing AGI.

For example, we’re partnering with nonprofit AI safety research organizations, including Apollo and Redwood Research, who have advised on a dedicated misalignment section in the latest version of our Frontier Safety Framework.

Through ongoing dialogue with policy stakeholders globally, we hope to contribute to international consensus on critical frontier safety and security issues, including how we can best anticipate and prepare for novel risks.

Our efforts include working with others in the industry – via organizations like the Frontier Model Forum – to share and develop best practices, as well as valuable collaborations with AI Institutes on safety testing. Ultimately, we believe a coordinated international approach to governance is critical to ensure society benefits from advanced AI systems.

Educating AI researchers and experts on AGI safety is fundamental to creating a strong foundation for its development. As such, we’ve launched a new course on AGI Safety for students, researchers and professionals interested in this topic.

Ultimately, our approach to AGI safety and security serves as a vital roadmap to address the many challenges that remain open. We look forward to collaborating with the wider AI research community to advance AGI responsibly and help us unlock the immense benefits of this technology for all.

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Q2 Executive Roundtable Recap

Matt Vincent is Editor in Chief of Data Center Frontier, where he leads editorial strategy and coverage focused on the infrastructure powering cloud computing, artificial intelligence, and the digital economy. A veteran B2B technology journalist with more than two decades of experience, Vincent specializes in the intersection of data centers, power, cooling, and emerging AI-era infrastructure. Since assuming the EIC role in 2023, he has helped guide Data Center Frontier’s coverage of the industry’s transition into the gigawatt-scale AI era, with a focus on hyperscale development, behind-the-meter power strategies, liquid cooling architectures, and the evolving energy demands of high-density compute, while working closely with the Digital Infrastructure Group at Endeavor Business Media to expand the brand’s analytical and multimedia footprint. Vincent also hosts The Data Center Frontier Show podcast, where he interviews industry leaders across hyperscale, colocation, utilities, and the data center supply chain to examine the technologies and business models reshaping digital infrastructure. Since its inception he serves as Head of Content for the Data Center Frontier Trends Summit. Before becoming Editor in Chief, he served in multiple senior editorial roles across Endeavor Business Media’s digital infrastructure portfolio, with coverage spanning data centers and hyperscale infrastructure, structured cabling and networking, telecom and datacom, IP physical security, and wireless and Pro AV markets. He began his career in 2005 within PennWell’s Advanced Technology Division and later held senior editorial positions supporting brands such as Cabling Installation & Maintenance, Lightwave Online, Broadband Technology Report, and Smart Buildings Technology. Vincent is a frequent moderator, interviewer, and keynote speaker at industry events including the HPC Forum, where he delivers forward-looking analysis on how AI and high-performance computing are reshaping digital infrastructure. He graduated with honors from Indiana University Bloomington with a B.A. in English Literature and Creative Writing and lives in southern New Hampshire with

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Emergence Water and Nimbus: Water Joins Power as AI Infrastructure’s Next Critical Constraint

For much of the past decade, the conversation surrounding AI infrastructure has been dominated by one resource above all others: power. Utilities have become strategic partners. Natural gas generation, small modular reactors, microgrids and behind-the-meter power have become central themes across virtually every major data center conference. Developers increasingly speak about securing megawatts years before they discuss servers. But another infrastructure constraint is quietly following the same trajectory: Water. According to executives from Emergence Water and Nimbus Advanced Process Cooling Systems, water is rapidly evolving beyond its traditional role as a sustainability metric and becoming one of the primary determinants of where AI campuses can be built, how they are cooled, and how efficiently they will operate over the coming decade. Speaking with Data Center Frontier Editor in Chief Matt Vincent on the latest DCF Show podcast, Emergence Water Chief Product Officer Leif Percifield and Nimbus Technical Director Vamsi Mokkapati described an industry where water has effectively joined power and fiber as foundational infrastructure for AI development. “From a community perspective, water is absolutely the number one priority about where and why a data center gets built,” Percifield said. “From the developer, it’s pretty binary. They either have water available to them—or they don’t.” Water Is Becoming a Site Selection Constraint The shift reflects the changing realities of AI infrastructure. Traditional enterprise data centers often viewed water primarily through sustainability reporting or Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE) discussions. AI facilities operating at unprecedented rack densities have fundamentally altered that equation. Liquid cooling, hybrid cooling architectures and increasingly sophisticated thermal management strategies all place new emphasis on reliable long-term water availability. Equally important, communities are beginning to scrutinize water usage with the same intensity previously reserved for electrical demand. Percifield says those conversations are increasingly determining whether projects move forward at all.

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U.S. Open powers up AI-ready network in challenging environment

Environmental conditions add another layer of complexity. Anthony Santora, managing director of IT for the USGA, describes the championship network as a data center without the usual comforts. There’s dust, rain, wind, and wide temperature swings instead of clean, controlled air. Hardware resides in trailers and weatherproof enclosures, not in racks behind raised floor tiles. For network engineers who spend most of their time on office campuses and in colos, that’s an important reminder: Critical infrastructure increasingly sits in places that look nothing like a traditional wiring closet. User behavior is just as hostile. The U.S. Open has its own term — the “Tiger effect” (though one could argue it’s now the Scottie effect) — for what happens when tens of thousands of fans follow a single golfer. The hot spot moves with the group, and the RF design must cope with a dense, moving cluster of devices. That pattern should sound familiar to anyone who supports large conferences or festivals; it’s the same phenomenon, just under a different name. Building an AI‑ready, fault‑tolerant course network Cisco’s answer to this environment is a fully redundant, mobile core design. Instead of a single large core in a building, the network collapses into dual trailers that serve as cores on the go, typically anchored at the NBC broadcast compound and another central location. Each core hosts Cisco Secure Firewall appliances, FMCs, core Catalyst switches, DHCP, UPS, and generators, all in pairs. Rodriguez was matter-of-fact about the philosophy: “We do everything in pairs as much as we can.” If one fails, its twin picks up the load.

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Microsoft will invest $80B in AI data centers in fiscal 2025

And Microsoft isn’t the only one that is ramping up its investments into AI-enabled data centers. Rival cloud service providers are all investing in either upgrading or opening new data centers to capture a larger chunk of business from developers and users of large language models (LLMs).  In a report published in October 2024, Bloomberg Intelligence estimated that demand for generative AI would push Microsoft, AWS, Google, Oracle, Meta, and Apple would between them devote $200 billion to capex in 2025, up from $110 billion in 2023. Microsoft is one of the biggest spenders, followed closely by Google and AWS, Bloomberg Intelligence said. Its estimate of Microsoft’s capital spending on AI, at $62.4 billion for calendar 2025, is lower than Smith’s claim that the company will invest $80 billion in the fiscal year to June 30, 2025. Both figures, though, are way higher than Microsoft’s 2020 capital expenditure of “just” $17.6 billion. The majority of the increased spending is tied to cloud services and the expansion of AI infrastructure needed to provide compute capacity for OpenAI workloads. Separately, last October Amazon CEO Andy Jassy said his company planned total capex spend of $75 billion in 2024 and even more in 2025, with much of it going to AWS, its cloud computing division.

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John Deere unveils more autonomous farm machines to address skill labor shortage

Join our daily and weekly newsletters for the latest updates and exclusive content on industry-leading AI coverage. Learn More Self-driving tractors might be the path to self-driving cars. John Deere has revealed a new line of autonomous machines and tech across agriculture, construction and commercial landscaping. The Moline, Illinois-based John Deere has been in business for 187 years, yet it’s been a regular as a non-tech company showing off technology at the big tech trade show in Las Vegas and is back at CES 2025 with more autonomous tractors and other vehicles. This is not something we usually cover, but John Deere has a lot of data that is interesting in the big picture of tech. The message from the company is that there aren’t enough skilled farm laborers to do the work that its customers need. It’s been a challenge for most of the last two decades, said Jahmy Hindman, CTO at John Deere, in a briefing. Much of the tech will come this fall and after that. He noted that the average farmer in the U.S. is over 58 and works 12 to 18 hours a day to grow food for us. And he said the American Farm Bureau Federation estimates there are roughly 2.4 million farm jobs that need to be filled annually; and the agricultural work force continues to shrink. (This is my hint to the anti-immigration crowd). John Deere’s autonomous 9RX Tractor. Farmers can oversee it using an app. While each of these industries experiences their own set of challenges, a commonality across all is skilled labor availability. In construction, about 80% percent of contractors struggle to find skilled labor. And in commercial landscaping, 86% of landscaping business owners can’t find labor to fill open positions, he said. “They have to figure out how to do

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2025 playbook for enterprise AI success, from agents to evals

Join our daily and weekly newsletters for the latest updates and exclusive content on industry-leading AI coverage. Learn More 2025 is poised to be a pivotal year for enterprise AI. The past year has seen rapid innovation, and this year will see the same. This has made it more critical than ever to revisit your AI strategy to stay competitive and create value for your customers. From scaling AI agents to optimizing costs, here are the five critical areas enterprises should prioritize for their AI strategy this year. 1. Agents: the next generation of automation AI agents are no longer theoretical. In 2025, they’re indispensable tools for enterprises looking to streamline operations and enhance customer interactions. Unlike traditional software, agents powered by large language models (LLMs) can make nuanced decisions, navigate complex multi-step tasks, and integrate seamlessly with tools and APIs. At the start of 2024, agents were not ready for prime time, making frustrating mistakes like hallucinating URLs. They started getting better as frontier large language models themselves improved. “Let me put it this way,” said Sam Witteveen, cofounder of Red Dragon, a company that develops agents for companies, and that recently reviewed the 48 agents it built last year. “Interestingly, the ones that we built at the start of the year, a lot of those worked way better at the end of the year just because the models got better.” Witteveen shared this in the video podcast we filmed to discuss these five big trends in detail. Models are getting better and hallucinating less, and they’re also being trained to do agentic tasks. Another feature that the model providers are researching is a way to use the LLM as a judge, and as models get cheaper (something we’ll cover below), companies can use three or more models to

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OpenAI’s red teaming innovations define new essentials for security leaders in the AI era

Join our daily and weekly newsletters for the latest updates and exclusive content on industry-leading AI coverage. Learn More OpenAI has taken a more aggressive approach to red teaming than its AI competitors, demonstrating its security teams’ advanced capabilities in two areas: multi-step reinforcement and external red teaming. OpenAI recently released two papers that set a new competitive standard for improving the quality, reliability and safety of AI models in these two techniques and more. The first paper, “OpenAI’s Approach to External Red Teaming for AI Models and Systems,” reports that specialized teams outside the company have proven effective in uncovering vulnerabilities that might otherwise have made it into a released model because in-house testing techniques may have missed them. In the second paper, “Diverse and Effective Red Teaming with Auto-Generated Rewards and Multi-Step Reinforcement Learning,” OpenAI introduces an automated framework that relies on iterative reinforcement learning to generate a broad spectrum of novel, wide-ranging attacks. Going all-in on red teaming pays practical, competitive dividends It’s encouraging to see competitive intensity in red teaming growing among AI companies. When Anthropic released its AI red team guidelines in June of last year, it joined AI providers including Google, Microsoft, Nvidia, OpenAI, and even the U.S.’s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), which all had released red teaming frameworks. Investing heavily in red teaming yields tangible benefits for security leaders in any organization. OpenAI’s paper on external red teaming provides a detailed analysis of how the company strives to create specialized external teams that include cybersecurity and subject matter experts. The goal is to see if knowledgeable external teams can defeat models’ security perimeters and find gaps in their security, biases and controls that prompt-based testing couldn’t find. What makes OpenAI’s recent papers noteworthy is how well they define using human-in-the-middle

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